Observations/Reflections: On a Proposed Research Project Relating Theology and Behavioral Science
Status: Dictated but Not Reviewed
Published: 09/05/08
Written: 06/16/08
Dictated By: Flint McGlaughlin
Note: The following is excerpted from a letter to a friend and colleague regarding a tentative new research project that explores how the impact of theological/philosophical reflection could be evaluated within a behavioral science context.
As a first step, I will summarize my interests with just ninety-one words: I am interested in theological/philosophical1 reflection on enterprise transaction, particularly the offer-response process because I want to posit and test a set of theologically/philosophically grounded heuristics for optimizing the response rate to a given offer. Moreover, I am intrigued by the notion that the impact of theological/philosophical reflection could be evaluated within a behavioral science context.2
The heart of business is transaction: offer-response. Yet there is very little academic research being done on this essential microcosm - and most of this is limited to the tangential field of Web usability3. Based on ten years of personal research in this field4, I suspect there is a significant gap in our understanding. This 'gap' could be mitigating our advances in developing a vision for ethical (yet sustainable) commerce models5. Indeed, without a thorough understanding, one may not be able to adequately answer a critical economic question: How can a given enterprise optimize the value-for-value expression of a proposed transaction to achieve maximum response rates?
To address the question, one might consult a variety of complementary research streams, including cognitive psychology6, S-D Logic7, Heiderian Balance8, or social exchange theory9. Indeed, any one of these 'streams' could contribute to deeper understanding. Nevertheless, I am interested in approaching the problem, first, as a theologian. This approach would necessarily involve other disciplines, but it would still view theological inquiry as foundational. This position recalls Deborah van Deusen Hunsinger's argument that theology is a 'logical precedent for interdisciplinary inquiry' (1995:65). And while this position may need to be defended in my work, it has been ably argued in the philosophical work of W.F. R. Hardie10 and S. L Hurley11.
In this regard, I find Swinton's and Mowat's corrective vision for practical theology and qualitative research instructive, although, my project envisions the inclusion of quantitative research (single and multi factorial testing). Swinton and Mowat argue for a theological approach that is 'fundamentally hermeneutical, correlational, critical, and theological' (Swinton and Mowat: 76). The correlational aspect of this quadrilateral model offers a way to engage complementary disciplines. As Tillich notes, 'In using the method of correlation, systematic theology proceeds in the following way: it makes an analysis of the human situation out of which the existential question arises, and it demonstrates that the symbols used in the Christian message are the answers to the question' (Tillich, 1951: 62)12
At this preliminary stage, I am not certain that I would situate my approach squarely within the discipline of practical theology, particularly if I view the field through the lens of Lonergan13. But with certain modifications, recent perspectives on the field open up possibilities for fruitful interdisciplinary research. Three observations may be helpful in suggesting these possibilities:
- This project will engage a theological approach that 'stays close to experience' (Fowler, 1997: 7). Its perspective can be understood through Browning's notion14 of 'theory-laden practice': As Browning notes, 'By using the phrase theory-laden, I mean to rule out in advance the widely held assumption that theory is distinct from practice. All our practices, all our religious practices, have theories behind and within them.... We are so embedded in our practices, take them so much for granted, and view them as so natural and self-evident that we never take time to abstract the theory from the practice and look at it as something in itself' (Browning, 1983: 6).
- Yet this project will engage a theological approach that entails more than 'techno-theological' application. At times, practical theology, in a way that is analogous to science and technology, has focused on technical application rather than theological content (Swinton and Mowat: 16). This approach does a disservice to practical theology, but also to the other theological disciplines, as it implies that they may somehow ignore the relevance of practice15. As Anderson observes, "What makes theology practical is not the fitting of orthopaedic devices to theoretical concepts in order to make them walk" (Anderson: 12).
- Moreover, this project will engage a theological approach that is integrative. A Practical Theology that limits its inquiry to the work of the Church implies an artificial distinction, between church and 'ordinary life', which only reinforces a compartmentalized approach to faith. But as Swinton and Mowat emphasize, 'The focus of the practical theological task is the quest for truth and the development and maintenance of faithful and transformative practice in the world' (Swinton and Mowat: 25)16.
In sum, on the one hand, I am interested in solving a particular science problem - how can a given enterprise optimize the value-for-value expression of a proposed transaction to achieve maximum response rates? On the other, I am curious as to how a theologian-philosopher might approach this particular science problem.
Bibliography
- Abela, A.V. and Murphy, P.E., 'Business and Economics', Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36:1, 39-53.
- Anderson, R.S., The Shape of Practical Theology, Empowering Ministry with Theological Praxis, Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2001.
- Bhatt M., M.Hsu, R. Adolphs, D. Tranel, and C. F. Camerer, 'Neural Systems Responding to Degrees of Uncertainty in Human Decision-Making', Science, 9: 310:5754, 1680-1683.
- Blau, P.M., Exchange and Power in Social Life, New York: Wiley, 1964.
- Browning, D., A Fundamental Practical Theology: Descriptive and Strategic Proposals, Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991.
- Browning, D. S., Practical Theology, San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1983.
- Browning, A Fundamental Practical Theology: Descriptive and Strategic Proposals, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991.
- Camerer, C. F., Comment on 'Development Economics through the Lens of Psychology', Mullainathan, S., AWBC on Development Economics, Lessons of Experience, Eds. Bourguignon, F. and Pleskovic, B., 2005.
- Crandall, C.S., P. J. Silvia, A.N. N'Gbala J. Tsang, K. and Dawson, 'Balance Theory, Unit Relations, and Attribution: The Underlying Integrity of Heiderian Theory', Review of General Psychology, 11:1, 12-30.
- Fowler, J.E. Stages of Faith: Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning, San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1981.
- Fowler, J.E., 'The Emerging New Shape of Practical Theology', unpublished paper from the 1995 Conference of the International Academy of Practical theology, Berne, (1995). [See Swinton p.26]
- Fowler, J.W., Faith Development and Pastoral Care, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, 1987.
- Gilovich, T., Griffin,D., and Kahneman,D., (eds.) Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
- Hefner, P., 'The Role of Science in Pannenberg's Theological Thinking', Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science, 1989, 24:2, 135-51.
- Heider, F., The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, New York: John Wiley & Son, 1958.
- Heider, F., 'Attitudes and Cognitive Organization', Journal of Psychology, 1946, 21, 107-112.
- Ho, T.H., Lim, N., and Camerer, C., 'Modeling the Psychology of Consumer and Firm Behavior with Behavioral Economics', Journal of Marketing Research, 2006, 9-12.
- Homans, G. C. 'Social Behavior as Exchange', American Journal of Sociology, 1958, 63, 597-606.
- Lonergan, B., Method in Theology: Collected works of Bernard Lonergan Insight,Vol. 3, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992.
- Lusch, R.F., and Vargo, S.L., 'The Service-Dominant Logic of Marketing: Reactions, Reflections, and Refinements', Marketing Theory, 6:3, 281-88
- Miller, K., Communication Theories, New York: McGraw Hill, 2005.
- Pannenberg, W., Theology and the Philosophy of Science, Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1976, Trans. McDonagh, F., of Wissenschaftstheorie und Theologie, Frankfurt, A.M., Suhrkamp, 1973.
- Popper, K., Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul: 1963) (New York: Harper Row: 1968; 5th edition, 1989).
- Popper, K., Objective Knowledge, Oxford University Press, 1972, 2nd edition, 1979.
- Proctor, R. W., and Vu, K.l., (eds), Handbook of Human Factors in Web Design, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005.
- Sanks, T. H., 'David Tracy's Theological Project: An Overview and Some Implications', Theological Studies, 54, (1993).
- Schleiermacher, F., Hermeneutics and Criticism and Other Writings, (tr.) Bowie, A., Cambridge: University Press, 1998.
- Swinton, J. and Mowat, H., Practical Theology and Qualitative Research, London: SCM Press, 2006
- Tillich, P., Systematic Theology, 1, London: SCM Press, 1951.
- Tracy, D., Blessed Rage for Order, London: University of Chicago Press, 1975.
- Vargo, S. L. and. Morgan, F.W., 'An Historical Reexamination of the Nature of Exchange: The Service-Dominant Perspective', Journal of Macromarketing, (2005), 25:1, 42-53.
- Vargo, S. L., 'Rethinking the Logic of the Customer Orientation', Marketing Research, (2005), 17:7, 42-43.
- Vargo, S.L. and Lusch, R. F., 'Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing', Journal of Marketing, (2004), 68, 1-17.
1 In praxis, I find it very difficult to separate these two disciplines. The project would necessarily engage both. Even if I minimized the reference to theology, its influence would be manifest in my essential warrants.
2 This notion may raise significant theological and philosophical objections, but it does seem worth exploring. Karl Popper's work on 'Truth and the Approximation of Truth' seems particularly germane. Schleiermacher's work could also be relevant .
3 The tools of Web usability may not be best for studying the offer-response process. Certain questions must be answered: Web usability is centered on human computer interaction (HCI); Does this approach frame the problem properly? Is it adequate to study the person-to-person interaction essential to the offer-response process - especially, since this process occurs in other contexts besides the Web? And how effective are current usability-based heuristic tools for optimizing the offer-response process? Moreover, does the field of Web usability, which seems to concentrate on functionality, provide the proper context for researching the efficacy of transaction?
4 See the attached summary of my previous work.
5 Indeed, I fear that much of the current literature on social enterprise and social entrepreneurship is focused on the value created externally to the core business activity. Leaders are encouraged to invest in community projects, give to social programs, and so on, while the core activity of ordinary enterprise is considered as merely instrumental. This relegates the essential value creation of a business to a secondary role and could encourage a kind of ethical neglect for its primary processes and products.
6 See Camerer on 'Development Economics through the Lens of Psychology' and 'Modeling the Psychology of Consumer and Firm Behavior with Behavioral Economics' and 'Neural Systems Responding to Degrees of Uncertainty in Human Decision‐Making'.
7 See Vargo on 'An Historical Reexamination of the Nature of Exchange: The Service-Dominant Perspective' and 'Rethinking the Logic of the Customer Orientation' and 'Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing'; also see Lusch on 'The Service-Dominant Logic of Marketing: Reactions, Reflections, and Refinements'; also see Abela on 'Business and Economics'.
8 See Heider on The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations; also Crandall et al. in 'Balance Theory, Unit Relations, and Attribution: The Underlying Integrity of Heiderian Theory'.
9 See Blau on
Exchange and Power in Social Life; also Miller on
Communication Theories.
10 See
Natural Reasons: Personality and Polity.
11 Hurley helps clarify the position: 'A conceptual account of X is an account of what we mean, understand, and intend ourselves to be talking about, when we talk or think about X. If X is not correctly thus accounted for in terms of Y, then X is conceptually independent of Y; if Y is accounted for in terms of X, where X is not in turn accounted for in terms of Y, then X is both conceptually prior to and independent of Y.' (1989: 10)
12 For a critique of this approach, see David Tracy's
Blessed Rage of Order. Also, see Howland Sanks' '
David Tracy's Theological Project: An Overview and Some Implications.'
(1993)
13 See Lonergan's eight functional specialties in
Method in Theology (1971). Lonergan has done theology a service with his
Method, but I question his demarcations.
14 The emphasis here is on a praxis-centered model rather than an applied model. For more see Anderson's
The Shape of Practical Theology.
15 As Dykstra notes, "When practice means the application of theory to contemporary procedure, then biblical studies, history, systematic theology, philosophy, and ethics all become theoretical disciplines in which practice has no intrinsic place." (2003:172).
